Social-emotional competence refers to a group of skills that are necessary for healthy development. Social-emotional skills allow children to regulate their emotions and engage in positive social interactions. These skills do not operate in isolation, but work together across cognitive, emotional, and behavioral domains.^{23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30}

Understanding and regulating feelings are important social-emotional skills that contribute to a child’s ability to effectively interact and focus in the classroom. Social-emotional competence provides a strong foundation for school readiness.^{30, 31, 32, 33}

The ability to identify and control emotions is associated with better academic outcomes in kindergarten. Preschool children with higher competency in these areas were also more likely to be rated by kindergarten teachers as having a better approach to learning, better teacher-child relationships, and better social behavior, including less anger and aggression and higher sensitivity and cooperation.^{34, 35, 36, 37}

In ranking the qualities most important for school readiness, kindergarten teachers ranked social-emotional skills above academic skills. Teachers rated non-academic skills higher than pre-literacy and numeracy for academic readiness in a survey conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics.^{38, 39}

Research indicates that children who spend two years in preschool have higher social-emotional competence in kindergarten compared to children in preschool for one year. Children in preschool for two years also show improvement in social-emotional skills at a faster rate than children who attend preschool for one year.³⁹

Executive function and social-emotional competence are distinct but interrelated concepts referring to a group of skills that develop rapidly in early childhood. The exact nature of the relationship between the two is not clearly understood, but for nearly two decades researchers have agreed that they are related and that both are critical for school readiness because they support key skills, such as attention and emotion regulation.^{40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 27, 28, 29, 30, 46, 47}

Executive function refers to the cognitive skills that enable us to regulate our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in order to carry out goal-directed activity. Like a busy air traffic controller who simultaneously manages the incoming and outgoing flights of multiple planes on multiple runways, executive functions organize and direct the mental processes that allow us to pay attention, resist impulses and distractions, and follow through with plans. Core executive function skills include working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. These skills provide the groundwork for learning in a school environment and enable children to be attentive, responsive, and engaged learners.^{48,41,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,40, 46}

Strong executive function in childhood has been associated with successful transition to kindergarten, motivation and engagement in elementary grades, early math and literacy abilities, emotion regulation, and social competency. Poor executive function in childhood has been associated with learning difficulties, behavior problems, bullying, impulsivity, and poor social-emotional functioning.^{56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 40, 65, 66, 67, 68, 29, 46, 69}

Executive function develops rapidly during early childhood, making this a critical period for promoting strong executive function development. Executive functions can be strengthened through training, practice, and positive interactions and experiences, such as those taking place in high-quality early childhood education programs.^{50, 70, 71, 53, 28, 72}

Executive function development is fostered by supportive, responsive caregiving and stable, predictable environments that provide opportunities for children to safely “practice” their developing self-regulatory skills. Conversely, executive function is impaired by chaotic environments and adverse experiences such as abuse, neglect, and/or exposure to violence.^{50, 73, 74, 75, 76}

Parenting style has been associated with executive function and school readiness outcomes for children - with harsh parenting linked to developmental risks, and supportive parenting linked to more advanced language and literacy knowledge.^{90, 91, 92, 4}

Maternal supportiveness, in particular, has been linked to children’s short- and long-term cognitive development and emotional regulation.^{93, 94, 95}

The capacity and interest of parents to be responsive and cognitively stimulate their children, as well as their ability to guide their child through failure, impact the child’s ability to develop both socially and academically.^{96, 97, 98, 99, 100}

Skilled parenting has been found to reduce cognitive problems, inattention, and oppositional behaviors; improve social skills and emotional regulation; and have an overall positive impact on school readiness.^{101, 98, 99, 100}

In analyzing multiple studies, researchers found that including cultural sensitivity modifications in parenting programs significantly improved parenting behavior compared to programs that did not take cultural sensitivity into consideration.¹⁰²

Analysis of multiple studies show that online parenting programs have significant positive effects on a number of outcomes, including increasing positive parenting behaviors and positive child behaviors and decreasing negative parent-child interactions.¹⁰³

Home visiting is an approach to parent education that is frequently delivered in the home environment by a home visitor. Topics covered vary by program and may include: maternal and child health, child development, play, provision of a stimulating environment, nutrition, and supports for parents. Frequency of visits can range from one visit total to ongoing visits one or more times a month.

An analysis of 51 studies by Filene and colleagues (2013) found that "parents and children participating in home visiting programs achieved more positive outcomes overall than parents and children in control/comparison groups." Home visiting results improve when paired with other services and with more intensive programs (i.e., programs with more home visits).^{77, 78}

Children in home visiting programs show fewer behavioral problems, have more favorable developmental outcomes, and score higher on tests of academic achievement.^{79, 80, 81, 82, 83}

Children who receive home visits are healthier, achieve more in school, and have better social-emotional skills.^{84, 85, 86}

Home visiting programs can improve positive parenting skills, children’s early development, and ultimately children's school readiness.^{84, 87, 88}

Home visiting programs can intervene and connect families to needed support early in a child’s development. The benefits of home visiting programs are greater when the program is more intensive (i.e., includes more home visits) and is part of a comprehensive community-wide early childhood service system.^{88, 89, 85}

Low maternal education has been found to be a significant risk factor for child development.⁹²

When parents struggle with reading, their ability to engage their children in reading activities becomes a challenge. These setbacks can cause children to enter school behind peers whose parents have higher levels of education.^{112, 113}

Economically disadvantaged children with college-educated mothers were found to be as ready for school as their more affluent peers with college-educated mothers.⁴

Higher maternal education tends to result in more resources for children to learn (e.g., reading interactions with adults and access to books), which can overcome income barriers.¹¹²

Children from single parent households tend to score lower on pre-academic skills compared to children in households with married or cohabitating parents. Research suggests this is largely due to the home learning environment, which is affected by lower income and social support as well as higher parenting stress and maternal depression; higher parenting stress is particularly influential.¹⁸⁷

Children who live in single-parent households are more likely to experience poverty, have less parental support, and have lower academic performance than children in dual-parent households. Researchers believe this may be because single-parent households tend to have access to fewer social and financial resources, which can impact parental involvement as well as child’s school performance.¹⁸⁸

Maternal speech abilities and exposure to reading during early childhood were found to mediate the effect of socioeconomic status on school readiness.^{114, 115} Additionally, research has shown that a bilingual mother's level of education and/or proficiency in English predicts her child's English vocabulary.^{117, 121} This supports the impact of maternal ability and education on children's language development.

SES and language spoken in the home both impact a child's language development, with children in lower income and/or non-English speaking households at greater risk for delays and lower academic achievement.¹²²

A number of studies have found that the home literacy environment (e.g., parents reading to children, talking to or asking questions of them) and existing language knowledge affect the influence of SES, including for dual-language learners.^{118, 119} One study found that the quality of child-directed speech is particularly important.¹¹⁶ Thus, a richer home literacy environment and greater existing language knowledge aid in new language development.

Although bilingualism has been shown to be a strength later in life, the challenge of acquiring language proficiency in multi-language households places a child at-risk during his/her early years. Research has found that children who live in multilingual homes tend to enter school with lower language skills in each language than monolingual students.¹²⁰ Students who experience difficulty with English literacy may exhibit delays well past preschool and kindergarten.¹²³

Children who are English language learners and participate in center-based early education have fewer behavioral issues and better social skills compared to English language learners with exclusively parent-based care.¹²⁴

Pairing at-risk native English speakers with at-risk English language learners during reading instruction benefits both student groups and mitigates the need for separate supplemental instruction.¹²⁵

Spanish speaking dual language learning students who are taught by Spanish speaking teachers have more emotionally supportive teacher-child interactions and perform better on measures of approaches to learning.¹²⁶

Linver, Brookes-Gunn, and Kohen (2002) found a significant relationship between income and child cognitive ability after following a group of nearly 500 children from birth to age five.¹²⁷

Academic achievement in elementary-aged children may be predicted by socioeconomic status; however, executive function is a significant influence that can overcome SES disadvantage.¹²⁸

Children from low income households tend to score substantially lower on literacy measures due to the influence of family stress.^{93, 129}

While neighborhood socioeconomic status may influence child development, neighborhood resources (especially high quality classrooms) are also influential. High-income, high-resource communities see the greatest benefit for child literacy and numeracy; however, low-income, high-resource communities see greater positive change in outcomes than high-income, low-resource neighborhoods.¹³⁰

Families who experience poverty are likely to have greater exposure to stress. Continuous stress can lead to impairments in a child’s learning and memory. Secure, responsive caregiving can help regulate stress levels in children during the early years of life. ¹⁸⁹

Children growing up in lower income families displayed less self-regulation than children from higher income families. Self-regulation is a key component in social-emotional development.²²

Lower income has also been found to be associated with lower levels of approaches to learning (e.g., participation, engagement, and motivation), interpersonal skills, and self-control.²²

The gap in social-emotional skills associated with socioeconomic status was observed to widen dramatically from kindergarten to fifth grade.⁴

Hamad and Rehkopf (2016) observed that higher Earned Income Tax Credit payments and higher income were associated with better short-term behavior and self-regulation in children, suggesting that when families have more resources, children experience fewer difficulties during development.¹³¹

Poverty negatively impacts the development of social competence and executive function. Consequently, children who experience poverty are at a greater risk of experiencing academic difficulties.⁴⁷

Parental involvement in school-based activites is especially important in lower income familes, as parental school involvement is linked to higher social-emotional competence in kindergarten children.¹³²

One study found that children who grow up in low income households and recognize their socioeconomic disadvantage are more likely to have difficulties with attention and are more likely to have anxious-depressive symptoms.¹³³

Stress related to economic hardship can result in parental neglect, which puts a child at greater risk for social-emotional and behavioral difficulties later in life. Nurturing relationships can help children build resilience and combat negative effects related to stress. ^{144, 190}

Undiagnosed vision problems are pervasive among children in low-income urban areas. A lack of healthcare and vision care to correct these problems is correlated with low academic performance.^{182, 183}

Consistent access to Medicaid coverage during childhood leads to higher educational attainment later in life including decreased high school drop out rates and an increase in postsecondary degree completion.¹⁸⁴

When a child is exposed to physical or emotional abuse and chronic neglect without adequate adult support, a toxic stress response can occur. Long-term activation of the stress response systems can damage brain architecture and other organ systems, as well as increasing the risk of stress-related disease and cognitive impairment far into adulthood.¹⁷⁹

Supportive, responsive connections with loving adults as early as possible in life can help to prevent or reverse the negative effects of toxic stress. Stable, caring relationships can protect against negative consequences by restoring the “steady state” of the stress response systems.¹⁷⁹

High quality interventions targeted for the needs of young children in foster care has been found to be cost effective and beneficial for both social-emotional and pre-academic outcomes.¹⁸⁰

A study of Canadian children placed in foster care before the age of five showed a significant relationship to out-of-home placement and lower performance on school readiness measures.¹⁸¹

Children from migrant families who participate in early school readiness programs have more difficulties with English skills, but have above-average attendance compared to non-migrant children living in poverty.¹⁰⁴

A systematic review of research on school readiness and homelessness found that in most large-scaled studies, children who experienced homelessness had lower academic achievement than their home-secure and socioeconomically matched counterparts.¹⁰⁹

Children who transition out of homelessness and participate in early childhood education programs performed better in math and reading than previously homeless children who did not participate in such programs.¹¹⁰

Children who experience homelessness are more likely to have developmental delays and behavioral problems compared to children who do not experience homelessness. They are also more likely to have delays in reading and math abilities.¹¹¹

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The Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2012) found that serve and return interactions build and strengthen a child’s brain development, supporting overall physical, mental, and emotional development.¹³⁴

Children ages 0 to 5 benefit from stable, positive relationships with teachers and caregivers. Retention of early childhood staff helps promote quality by providing stability of positive relationships for children.¹³⁵

Research indicates children who experience high quality care from infancy through PreK have higher cognitive, language, and preacademic skills upon school entry. Additionally, high quality care before PreK was related to better memory skills by kindergarten.¹³⁶

Stability and high quality relationships can lead to fewer behavior problems, better engagement, and higher social-emotional regulation for children in infant and toddler care settings.^{137, 138}

The quality of care (including positive, responsive caregiving) during infancy and toddlerhood is a strong predictor of child development, resulting in short- and long-term outcomes related to academic achievement for high-risk children.^{139, 140}

Research suggests children benefit most both social-emotionally and academically from classrooms that reach an established level of emotional and behavioral support, organization, and learning and instructional promotion.^{141, 72, 142, 143}

PreK participation has positive effects on executive function, emotional development, and academic achievement.^{126, 144, 145}

PreK participation has been associated with higher scores on language, literacy, and math assessments through the fifth grade as well as lower grade retention and special education placement.^{146, 147}

Teacher-reported behavior problems were lower for children who participated in Head Start compared to peers with no PreK participation.¹⁴⁵

Students who participate in well-funded PreK programs have more persistent positive outcomes than students who participate in poorly funded programs. These gains are compounded for students who participate in preschool programs for at least two years.¹⁴⁶

Students who attend publicly funded PreK programs score higher on third grade math and reading assessments than their counterparts who attend center-based care.¹⁴⁸

A national review of the effects of public PreK programs found the impacts through fourth grade were much stronger for programs in school districts with more disadvantaged students and with high quality programs.¹⁴⁹

Research also suggests PreK classroom quality can help narrow the gap between children entering kindergarten with greater literacy skills and those entering with lower literacy skills.^{150, 72}

Research suggests positive relationships and high quality classroom experiences are associated with higher levels of language, literacy, and mathematics skills for children.^{151, 152, 153}

Research suggests improvement in the quality of teacher-child interactions over time can lead to better student literacy and executive functioning by the end of a child’s PreK year, regardless of initial interaction quality.¹⁴²

High quality teacher interactions can lead to greater levels of inhibitory control and working memory, which strengthens overall executive functioning.^{72, 154, 142}

Children who experience high levels of language modeling, quality feedback, and concept development make greater gains on language development and academic achievement.^{155, 156, 157, 142, 158}

High quality CLASS teacher-child interactions were most predictive of positive changes in academic outcomes and social skills when compared to group size, family partnership, staff education and training, and alternate classroom environment ratings.^{159, 160}

Higher classroom quality was found to be associated with positive social-emotional functioning, particularly for children living in small cities or rural areas.¹⁶¹

Strong phonemic awareness is a predictor of reading proficiency in third grade.^{162, 163}

Phonemic awareness is also linked to increased spelling ability, which in turn is connected to reading acquisition.^{164, 165, 166}

Results from two studies that combined research from more than 80 different studies found preschool programs that include phonemic awareness had significant positive impacts on language, spelling, and literacy skills. The outcomes in this research applied to a wide range of children, from normally developing readers to struggling readers, and children from low to middle/high income families.^{167, 168}

The United Kingdom, Australia, and Scotland have conducted research on the implementation of systematic phonemic instruction. Based upon the research in Scotland, the UK now mandates state-funded schools provide systematic phonics instruction, starting when children enter school at age four. This change has resulted in consistent and continuing improvements in reading comprehension.¹⁶⁹

A study conducted before the new policy was fully implemented found that children in schools with systematic phonics instruction showed significantly higher reading scores than those in schools without this instruction. Furthermore, the study found longer-term benefits for children who were English language learners or who were economically disadvantaged.¹⁷⁰

In a meta-analysis of studies on the effects of various reading interventions, Suggate (2016) found that phonemic awareness was more effective than phonics with younger children when comparing reading ability as late as third and fourth grades.¹⁷¹

The association between oral language and literacy outcomes has been found to hold true for dual language learners as well.¹⁷²

Research on the science of learning to read indicates that emergent phonological skills are key to learning to read.^{165, 166, 173}

Children have the capacity to develop phonemic awareness skills prior to age four. These skills predict successful progression on phonemic awareness measures.¹⁷³

Studies indicate that dialogic reading benefits language development in young children, which then increases school readiness. These benefits have been observed in children ages two to six, and the literature suggests the effects of dialogic reading may be most impactful for children as young as two and three years old.^{173, 174, 175, 176}

According to seminal research by Shaywitz and Shaywitz (2003), the fundamental deficit responsible for dyslexia is disruption of phonemic awareness. As a result, phonemic awareness interventions are recommended as the optimal treatment for dyslexia and a way to limit the negative effect on school readiness and academic achievement.¹⁸⁵

Children of dyslexic parents have been found, in previous research, to be at higher risk of having dyslexia themselves. A phonemic awareness and letter naming intervention produced significant effects for children with famlial risk for dyslexia. The effects were most pronounced for the poorest readers and persisted as long as the 7th grade.¹⁸⁶

Early childhood development drives success in school and life. Investing in early childhood education for at-risk children is a cost-effective strategy for promoting economic growth.¹⁷⁷

Long-term follow-up of Perry Preschool Program participants indicated lower levels of dependence on public assistance, lower levels of criminal activity, and higher levels of education for female participants. Positive effects on executive function and emotional development were also found.¹⁷⁸

In 1997, the government of Quebec, Canada implemented universal, low-fee early childhood education and care for children ages 0 to 5 years. Research conducted 15 and 20 years later found the program has resulted in more children attending regulated daycare and a significant increase of working mothers in the labor force. Additionally, the program has more than paid for itself, with increases in the tax base.^{191, 192, 193}

Research on the long-term effects for children involved in universal preschool in Boston found preschool enrollment led to increased high school graduation rates, increased college attendance, and decreased juvenile incarceration.¹⁹⁴

Childcare subsidies can potentially help increase educational attainment and the work effort of mothers with less education.^{195, 196}

High quality early childhood programs for low-income children can potentially deliver a 13.7% return on investment.¹⁹⁷

Research has found children with less resources benefit the most from high quality early childhood care and education.^{198, 199}

High-quality early childhood education programs targeted to children with fewer resources have long-term positive effects, such as increased social-emotional skills, increased academic achievement, increased graduation rates, increased employment, positive health behaviors, reduction in criminal activity, and reduction in welfare dependence.^{200, 201, 198}

In both seminal research and more recent studies the long-term effects of intensive early childhood education programs consistently show positive effects well into adulthood.²⁰⁰

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