Social-emotional competence refers to a group of skills that are necessary for healthy development. Social-emotional skills allow children to regulate their emotions and engage in positive social interactions. These skills do not operate in isolation, but work together across cognitive, emotional, and behavioral domains.^{23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30}

Understanding and regulating feelings are important social-emotional skills that contribute to a child’s ability to effectively interact and focus in the classroom. Social-emotional competence provides a strong foundation for school readiness.^{30, 31, 32, 33}

The ability to identify and control emotions is associated with better academic outcomes in kindergarten. Preschool children with higher competency in these areas were also more likely to be rated by kindergarten teachers as having a better approach to learning, better teacher-child relationships, and better social behavior, including less anger and aggression and higher sensitivity and cooperation.^{34, 35, 36, 37}

In ranking the qualities most important for school readiness, kindergarten teachers ranked social-emotional skills above academic skills. Teachers rated non-academic skills higher than pre-literacy and numeracy for academic readiness in a survey conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics.^{38, 39}

Research indicates that children who spend two years in preschool have higher social-emotional competence in kindergarten compared to children in preschool for one year. Children in preschool for two years also show improvement in social-emotional skills at a faster rate than children who attend preschool for one year.³⁹

Executive function and social-emotional competence are distinct but interrelated concepts referring to a group of skills that develop rapidly in early childhood. The exact nature of the relationship between the two is not clearly understood, but for nearly two decades researchers have agreed that they are related and that both are critical for school readiness because they support key skills, such as attention and emotion regulation.^{40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 27, 28, 29, 30, 46, 47}

Executive function refers to the cognitive skills that enable us to regulate our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in order to carry out goal-directed activity. Like a busy air traffic controller who simultaneously manages the incoming and outgoing flights of multiple planes on multiple runways, executive functions organize and direct the mental processes that allow us to pay attention, resist impulses and distractions, and follow through with plans. Core executive function skills include working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. These skills provide the groundwork for learning in a school environment and enable children to be attentive, responsive, and engaged learners.^{48,41,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,40, 46}

Strong executive function in childhood has been associated with successful transition to kindergarten, motivation and engagement in elementary grades, early math and literacy abilities, emotion regulation, and social competency. Poor executive function in childhood has been associated with learning difficulties, behavior problems, bullying, impulsivity, and poor social-emotional functioning.^{56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 40, 65, 66, 67, 68, 29, 46, 69}

Executive function develops rapidly during early childhood, making this a critical period for promoting strong executive function development. Executive functions can be strengthened through training, practice, and positive interactions and experiences, such as those taking place in high-quality early childhood education programs.^{50, 70, 71, 53, 28, 72}

Executive function development is fostered by supportive, responsive caregiving and stable, predictable environments that provide opportunities for children to safely “practice” their developing self-regulatory skills. Conversely, executive function is impaired by chaotic environments and adverse experiences such as abuse, neglect, and/or exposure to violence.^{50, 73, 74, 75, 76}

Parenting style has been associated with executive function and school readiness outcomes for children - with harsh parenting linked to developmental risks, and supportive parenting linked to more advanced language and literacy knowledge.^{90, 91, 92, 4}

Maternal supportiveness, in particular, has been linked to children’s short- and long-term cognitive development and emotional regulation.^{93, 94, 95}

The capacity and interest of parents to be responsive and cognitively stimulate their children, as well as their ability to guide their child through failure, impact the child’s ability to develop both socially and academically.^{96, 97, 98, 99, 100}

Skilled parenting has been found to reduce cognitive problems, inattention, and oppositional behaviors; improve social skills and emotional regulation; and have an overall positive impact on school readiness.^{101, 98, 99, 100}

In analyzing multiple studies, researchers found that including cultural sensitivity modifications in parenting programs significantly improved parenting behavior compared to programs that did not take cultural sensitivity into consideration.¹⁰²

Analysis of multiple studies show that online parenting programs have significant positive effects on a number of outcomes, including increasing positive parenting behaviors and positive child behaviors and decreasing negative parent-child interactions.¹⁰³

Home visiting is an approach to parent education that is frequently delivered in the home environment by a home visitor. Topics covered vary by program and may include: maternal and child health, child development, play, provision of a stimulating environment, nutrition, and supports for parents. Frequency of visits can range from one visit total to ongoing visits one or more times a month.

An analysis of 51 studies by Filene and colleagues (2013) found that "parents and children participating in home visiting programs achieved more positive outcomes overall than parents and children in control/comparison groups." Home visiting results improve when paired with other services and with more intensive programs (i.e., programs with more home visits).^{77, 78}

Children in home visiting programs show fewer behavioral problems, have more favorable developmental outcomes, and score higher on tests of academic achievement.^{79, 80, 81, 82, 83}

Children who receive home visits are healthier, achieve more in school, and have better social-emotional skills.^{84, 85, 86}

Home visiting programs can improve positive parenting skills, children’s early development, and ultimately children's school readiness.^{84, 87, 88}

Home visiting programs can intervene and connect families to needed support early in a child’s development. The benefits of home visiting programs are greater when the program is more intensive (i.e., includes more home visits) and is part of a comprehensive community-wide early childhood service system.^{88, 89, 85}

Low maternal education has been found to be a significant risk factor for child development.⁹²

When parents struggle with reading, their ability to engage their children in reading activities becomes a challenge. These setbacks can cause children to enter school behind peers whose parents have higher levels of education.^{112, 113}

Economically disadvantaged children with college-educated mothers were found to be as ready for school as their more affluent peers with college-educated mothers.⁴

Higher maternal education tends to result in more resources for children to learn (e.g., reading interactions with adults and access to books), which can overcome income barriers.¹¹²

Children from single parent households tend to score lower on pre-academic skills compared to children in households with married or cohabitating parents. Research suggests this is largely due to the home learning environment, which is affected by lower income and social support as well as higher parenting stress and maternal depression; higher parenting stress is particularly influential.¹⁸⁷

Children who live in single-parent households are more likely to experience poverty, have less parental support, and have lower academic performance than children in dual-parent households. Researchers believe this may be because single-parent households tend to have access to fewer social and financial resources, which can impact parental involvement as well as child’s school performance.¹⁸⁸

Maternal speech abilities and exposure to reading during early childhood were found to mediate the effect of socioeconomic status on school readiness.^{114, 115} Additionally, research has shown that a bilingual mother's level of education and/or proficiency in English predicts her child's English vocabulary.^{117, 121} This supports the impact of maternal ability and education on children's language development.

SES and language spoken in the home both impact a child's language development, with children in lower income and/or non-English speaking households at greater risk for delays and lower academic achievement.¹²²

A number of studies have found that the home literacy environment (e.g., parents reading to children, talking to or asking questions of them) and existing language knowledge affect the influence of SES, including for dual-language learners.^{118, 119} One study found that the quality of child-directed speech is particularly important.¹¹⁶ Thus, a richer home literacy environment and greater existing language knowledge aid in new language development.

Although bilingualism has been shown to be a strength later in life, the challenge of acquiring language proficiency in multi-language households places a child at-risk during his/her early years. Research has found that children who live in multilingual homes tend to enter school with lower language skills in each language than monolingual students.¹²⁰ Students who experience difficulty with English literacy may exhibit delays well past preschool and kindergarten.¹²³

Children who are English language learners and participate in center-based early education have fewer behavioral issues and better social skills compared to English language learners with exclusively parent-based care.¹²⁴

Pairing at-risk native English speakers with at-risk English language learners during reading instruction benefits both student groups and mitigates the need for separate supplemental instruction.¹²⁵

Spanish speaking dual language learning students who are taught by Spanish speaking teachers have more emotionally supportive teacher-child interactions and perform better on measures of approaches to learning.¹²⁶

Linver, Brookes-Gunn, and Kohen (2002) found a significant relationship between income and child cognitive ability after following a group of nearly 500 children from birth to age five.¹²⁷

Academic achievement in elementary-aged children may be predicted by socioeconomic status; however, executive function is a significant influence that can overcome SES disadvantage.¹²⁸

Children from low income households tend to score substantially lower on literacy measures due to the influence of family stress.^{93, 129}

While neighborhood socioeconomic status may influence child development, neighborhood resources (especially high quality classrooms) are also influential. High-income, high-resource communities see the greatest benefit for child literacy and numeracy; however, low-income, high-resource communities see greater positive change in outcomes than high-income, low-resource neighborhoods.¹³⁰

Families who experience poverty are likely to have greater exposure to stress. Continuous stress can lead to impairments in a child’s learning and memory. Secure, responsive caregiving can help regulate stress levels in children during the early years of life. ¹⁸⁹

Children growing up in lower income families displayed less self-regulation than children from higher income families. Self-regulation is a key component in social-emotional development.²²

Lower income has also been found to be associated with lower levels of approaches to learning (e.g., participation, engagement, and motivation), interpersonal skills, and self-control.²²

The gap in social-emotional skills associated with socioeconomic status was observed to widen dramatically from kindergarten to fifth grade.⁴

Hamad and Rehkopf (2016) observed that higher Earned Income Tax Credit payments and higher income were associated with better short-term behavior and self-regulation in children, suggesting that when families have more resources, children experience fewer difficulties during development.¹³¹

Poverty negatively impacts the development of social competence and executive function. Consequently, children who experience poverty are at a greater risk of experiencing academic difficulties.⁴⁷

Parental involvement in school-based activites is especially important in lower income familes, as parental school involvement is linked to higher social-emotional competence in kindergarten children.¹³²

One study found that children who grow up in low income households and recognize their socioeconomic disadvantage are more likely to have difficulties with attention and are more likely to have anxious-depressive symptoms.¹³³

Stress related to economic hardship can result in parental neglect, which puts a child at greater risk for social-emotional and behavioral difficulties later in life. Nurturing relationships can help children build resilience and combat negative effects related to stress. ^{144, 190}

Undiagnosed vision problems are pervasive among children in low-income urban areas. A lack of healthcare and vision care to correct these problems is correlated with low academic performance.^{182, 183}

Consistent access to Medicaid coverage during childhood leads to higher educational attainment later in life including decreased high school drop out rates and an increase in postsecondary degree completion.¹⁸⁴

When a child is exposed to physical or emotional abuse and chronic neglect without adequate adult support, a toxic stress response can occur. Long-term activation of the stress response systems can damage brain architecture and other organ systems, as well as increasing the risk of stress-related disease and cognitive impairment far into adulthood.¹⁷⁹

Supportive, responsive connections with loving adults as early as possible in life can help to prevent or reverse the negative effects of toxic stress. Stable, caring relationships can protect against negative consequences by restoring the “steady state” of the stress response systems.¹⁷⁹

High quality interventions targeted for the needs of young children in foster care has been found to be cost effective and beneficial for both social-emotional and pre-academic outcomes.¹⁸⁰

A study of Canadian children placed in foster care before the age of five showed a significant relationship to out-of-home placement and lower performance on school readiness measures.¹⁸¹

Children from migrant families who participate in early school readiness programs have more difficulties with English skills, but have above-average attendance compared to non-migrant children living in poverty.¹⁰⁴

A systematic review of research on school readiness and homelessness found that in most large-scaled studies, children who experienced homelessness had lower academic achievement than their home-secure and socioeconomically matched counterparts.¹⁰⁹

Children who transition out of homelessness and participate in early childhood education programs performed better in math and reading than previously homeless children who did not participate in such programs.¹¹⁰

Children who experience homelessness are more likely to have developmental delays and behavioral problems compared to children who do not experience homelessness. They are also more likely to have delays in reading and math abilities.¹¹¹

This popup is to be removed!

The Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2012) found that serve and return interactions build and strengthen a child’s brain development, supporting overall physical, mental, and emotional development.¹³⁴

Children ages 0 to 5 benefit from stable, positive relationships with teachers and caregivers. Retention of early childhood staff helps promote quality by providing stability of positive relationships for children.¹³⁵

Research indicates children who experience high quality care from infancy through PreK have higher cognitive, language, and preacademic skills upon school entry. Additionally, high quality care before PreK was related to better memory skills by kindergarten.¹³⁶

Stability and high quality relationships can lead to fewer behavior problems, better engagement, and higher social-emotional regulation for children in infant and toddler care settings.^{137, 138}

The quality of care (including positive, responsive caregiving) during infancy and toddlerhood is a strong predictor of child development, resulting in short- and long-term outcomes related to academic achievement for high-risk children.^{139, 140}

Research suggests children benefit most both social-emotionally and academically from classrooms that reach an established level of emotional and behavioral support, organization, and learning and instructional promotion.^{141, 72, 142, 143}

PreK participation has positive effects on executive function, emotional development, and academic achievement.^{126, 144, 145}

PreK participation has been associated with higher scores on language, literacy, and math assessments through the fifth grade as well as lower grade retention and special education placement.^{146, 147}

Teacher-reported behavior problems were lower for children who participated in Head Start compared to peers with no PreK participation.¹⁴⁵

Students who participate in well-funded PreK programs have more persistent positive outcomes than students who participate in poorly funded programs. These gains are compounded for students who participate in preschool programs for at least two years.¹⁴⁶

Students who attend publicly funded PreK programs score higher on third grade math and reading assessments than their counterparts who attend center-based care.¹⁴⁸

A national review of the effects of public PreK programs found the impacts through fourth grade were much stronger for programs with two factors. PreK programs in school districts where students had access to fewer resources and programs that were high quality were found to have the strongest outcomes.¹⁴⁹

Research also suggests PreK classroom quality can help narrow the gap between children entering kindergarten with greater literacy skills and those entering with lower literacy skills.^{150, 72}

Research suggests positive relationships and high quality classroom experiences are associated with higher levels of language, literacy, and mathematics skills for children.^{151, 152, 153}

Research suggests improvement in the quality of teacher-child interactions over time can lead to better student literacy and executive functioning by the end of a child’s PreK year, regardless of initial interaction quality.¹⁴²

High quality teacher interactions can lead to greater levels of inhibitory control and working memory, which strengthens overall executive functioning.^{72, 154, 142}

Children who experience high levels of language modeling, quality feedback, and concept development make greater gains on language development and academic achievement.^{155, 156, 157, 142, 158}

High quality CLASS teacher-child interactions were most predictive of positive changes in academic outcomes and social skills when compared to group size, family partnership, staff education and training, and alternate classroom environment ratings.^{159, 160}

Higher classroom quality was found to be associated with positive social-emotional functioning, particularly for children living in small cities or rural areas.¹⁶¹

Strong phonemic awareness is a predictor of reading proficiency in third grade.^{162, 163}

Phonemic awareness is also linked to increased spelling ability, which in turn is connected to reading acquisition.^{164, 165, 166}

Results from two studies that combined research from more than 80 different studies found preschool programs that include phonemic awareness had significant positive impacts on language, spelling, and literacy skills. The outcomes in this research applied to a wide range of children, from normally developing readers to struggling readers, and children from low to middle/high income families.^{167, 168}

The United Kingdom, Australia, and Scotland have conducted research on the implementation of systematic phonemic instruction. Based upon the research in Scotland, the UK now mandates state-funded schools provide systematic phonics instruction, starting when children enter school at age four. This change has resulted in consistent and continuing improvements in reading comprehension.¹⁶⁹

A study conducted before the new policy was fully implemented found that children in schools with systematic phonics instruction showed significantly higher reading scores than those in schools without this instruction. Furthermore, the study found longer-term benefits for children who were English language learners or who were economically disadvantaged.¹⁷⁰

In a meta-analysis of studies on the effects of various reading interventions, Suggate (2016) found that phonemic awareness was more effective than phonics with younger children when comparing reading ability as late as third and fourth grades.¹⁷¹

The association between oral language and literacy outcomes has been found to hold true for dual language learners as well.¹⁷²

Research on the science of learning to read indicates that emergent phonological skills are key to learning to read.^{165, 166, 173}

Children have the capacity to develop phonemic awareness skills prior to age four. These skills predict successful progression on phonemic awareness measures.¹⁷³

Studies indicate that dialogic reading benefits language development in young children, which then increases school readiness. These benefits have been observed in children ages two to six, and the literature suggests the effects of dialogic reading may be most impactful for children as young as two and three years old.^{173, 174, 175, 176}

According to seminal research by Shaywitz and Shaywitz (2003), the fundamental deficit responsible for dyslexia is disruption of phonemic awareness. As a result, phonemic awareness interventions are recommended as the optimal treatment for dyslexia and a way to limit the negative effect on school readiness and academic achievement.¹⁸⁵

Children of dyslexic parents have been found, in previous research, to be at higher risk of having dyslexia themselves. A phonemic awareness and letter naming intervention produced significant effects for children with famlial risk for dyslexia. The effects were most pronounced for the poorest readers and persisted as long as the 7th grade.¹⁸⁶

Early childhood development drives success in school and life. Investing in early childhood education for at-risk children is a cost-effective strategy for promoting economic growth.¹⁷⁷

Long-term follow-up of Perry Preschool Program participants indicated lower levels of dependence on public assistance, lower levels of criminal activity, and higher levels of education for female participants. Positive effects on executive function and emotional development were also found.¹⁷⁸

In 1997, the government of Quebec, Canada implemented universal, low-fee early childhood education and care for children ages 0 to 5 years. Research conducted 15 and 20 years later found the program has resulted in more children attending regulated daycare and a significant increase of working mothers in the labor force. Additionally, the program has more than paid for itself, with increases in the tax base.^{191, 192, 193}

Research on the long-term effects for children involved in universal preschool in Boston found preschool enrollment led to increased high school graduation rates, increased college attendance, and decreased juvenile incarceration.¹⁹⁴

Childcare subsidies can potentially help increase educational attainment and the work effort of mothers with less education.^{195, 196}

High quality early childhood programs for low-income children can potentially deliver a 13.7% return on investment.¹⁹⁷

Research has found children with less resources benefit the most from high quality early childhood care and education.^{198, 199}

High-quality early childhood education programs targeted to children with fewer resources have long-term positive effects, such as increased social-emotional skills, increased academic achievement, increased graduation rates, increased employment, positive health behaviors, reduction in criminal activity, and reduction in welfare dependence.^{200, 201, 198}

In both seminal research and more recent studies the long-term effects of intensive early childhood education programs consistently show positive effects well into adulthood.²⁰⁰

https://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/1277-free-and-reduced-lunch?loc=18&loct=5#detailed/5/2814-2918/false/574/any/2761

Roos, L. L., Wall-Wieler, E., & Lee, J. B. (2019). Poverty and early childhood outcomes. Pediatrics, 143(6).

Fletcher, J. M. & Wolfe, B. (2012). The importance of family income in the formation and evolution of non-cognitive skills in childhood. The Australian National University Centre for Economic Policy Research, 665.

Isaacs, J. B. (2012). Starting School at a Disadvantage: The School Readiness of Poor Children. The Social Genome Project. Center on Children and Families at Brookings.

https://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/1281-maternal-education?loc=18&loct=5#detailed/5/2814-2918/false/37/any/2769

McWayne, C. M., Hahs-Vaughn, D. L., Cheung, K., & Wright, L. E. G. (2012). National profiles of school readiness skills for Head Start children: An investigation of stability and change. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(4), 668-683.

Palermo, F., Carlo, G., Ispa, J. M., & Squires, C. (2019) Latina mothers' mental health and children's academic readiness: Moderation by maternal education. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 62, 206-269.

https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/geo/chart/sedgwickcountykansas,KS/POP815216#viewtop

Hoff, E. (2013). Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low-SES and language minority homes: implications for closing achievement gaps. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 4.

Ansari, A., Lόpez, M., Manfra, L., Bleiker, C., Dinehart, L. H. B., Hartman, S. C., & Winsler, A. (2017). Differential third‐grade outcomes associated with attending publicly funded preschool programs for Low‐Income latino children. Child Development, 88(5), 1743-1756.

https://www.kdheks.gov/phi/adol_teen_preg/Adolescent_Teenage_Pregnancy_18.pdf

Fomby, P., James-Hawkins, L., & Mollborn, S. (2015). Family resources in two generations and school readiness among children of teen parents. Population Research and Policy Review, 34(5), 733-759.

Mollborn, S., & Dennis, J. A. (2012, December). Explaining the Early Development and Health of Teen Mothers’ Children. In Sociological Forum (Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 1010-1036). Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Morinis, J., Carson, C., & Quigley, M. A. (2013). Effect of teenage motherhood on cognitive outcomes in children: a population-based cohort study. Archives of Disease in Childhood.

Wall-Wieler E., Lee J. B., Nickel N., Roos L. L. (2019) The multigenerational effects of adolescent motherhood on school readiness: A population-based retrospective cohort study. PLoS ONE 14(2).

Olson, L. M. Ph.D., Tang, S. S. Ph.D., & Newacheck, P. W. Dr.P.H. (2005) Children in the United States with Discontinuous Health Insurance Coverage. The New England Journal of Medicine 353, 382-391.

https://www.census.gov/data-tools/demo/sahie/#/?s_statefips=20&s_agecat=4

Peterson, J. W., Loeb, S., & Chamberlain, L. J. (2018). The intersection of health and education to address school readiness of all children. Pediatrics, 142(5).

Gullo, D. F. (2017). A structural model of early indicators of school readiness among children of poverty. Journal of Children and Poverty, 24(1).

https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=marital%20status&g=0400000US20.050000&tid=ACSST5Y2019.S1101&moe=false&hidePreview=true

Son, S-H, C. (2016). Marital status, home environments, and family strain: Complex effects on preschool children's school readiness. Infant and Child Development 26(2).

Pratt, M. E., McClelland, M. M., Swanson, J., & Lipscomb, S. T. (2016). Family risk profiles and school readiness: A person-centered approach. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36(3), 462-474.

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions.Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168.

Domitrovich, C. E., Cortes, R. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (2007). Improving young children’s social and emotional competence: A randomized trial of the preschool “PATHS” curriculum. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 28(2), 67-91.

Ferrier, D. E., Bassett, H. H., & Denham, S. A. (2014). Relations between executive function and emotionality in preschoolers: Exploring a transitive cognition–emotion linkage. Frontiers in Psychology, 5.

Jahromi, L. B., & Stifter, C. A. (2008). Individual differences in preschoolers' self-regulation and theory of mind. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54(1), 125-150.

Riggs, N. R., Jahromi, L. B., Razza, R. P., Dillworth-Bart, J. E., & Mueller, U. (2006). Executive function and the promotion of social–emotional competence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 300-309.

Zelazo, P.D., Blair, C.B., and Willoughby, M.T. (2016). Executive function: Implications for education (NCER 2017-2000) Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. This report is available on the Institute website.

Mann, T. D., Hund, A. M., Hesson-McInnis, M. S., Roman, Z. J. (2017) Pathways to school readiness: Executive functiong predicts academic and social-emotional aspects of school readiness. Mind, Brain, and Education, 11(1), 21-31.

Wenz-Gross, M., Yoo, Y., Upshur, C. C., Gambino, A. J. (2018). Pathways to kindergarten readiness: The roles of second step early learning curriculum and social emotional, executive functioning, preschool academic and task behavior skills. Frontiers in Psychology, 9.

Denham, S. A. (2006). Social-emotional competence as support for school readiness: What is it and how do we assess it? Early Education and Development, 17(1), 57-89

Denham, S. A., Bassett, H. H., Brown, C., Way, E., & Steed, J. (2015). “I Know How You Feel”: Preschoolers’ emotion knowledge contributes to early school success. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 13(3), 252-262

Eisenberg, N., Sadovsky, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2005). Associations of emotion‐related regulation with language skills, emotion knowledge, and academic outcomes. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2005(109), 109-118.

Denham, S. A., Bassett, H., Mincic, M., Kalb, S., Way, E., Wyatt, T., & Segal, Y. (2012). Social–emotional learning profiles of preschoolers' early school success: A person-centered approach. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(2), 178-189.

Torres, M. M., Domitrovich, C. E., & Bierman, K. L. (2015). Preschool interpersonal relationships predict kindergarten achievement: Mediated by gains in emotion knowledge. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 39, 44-52.

Ursache, A., Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2012). The promotion of self‐regulation as a means of enhancing school readiness and early achievement in children at risk for school failure. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 122-128.

Voltmer, K. & von Salisch, M. (2017). Three meta-analyses of children's emotion knowledge and their school success. Learning and Individual Differences, 59, 107-118.

Cappelloni, N. L. (2010). Kindergarten teachers' perceptions of kindergarten readiness (Doctoral dissertation, UNIVERSITY OF SAN FRANCISCO). https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/frss/publications/93410/index.asp

Moore, J. E., Cooper, B. R., Domitrovich, C. E., Morgan, N. R., Cleveland, M. J., Shah, H., ... & Greenberg, M. T. (2015). The effects of exposure to an enhanced preschool program on the social-emotional functioning of at-risk children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 32, 127-138.

McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers' literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 947.

Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children's functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57(2), 111.

Carlson, S. M., & Wang, T. S. (2007). Inhibitory control and emotion regulation in preschool children. Cognitive Development, 22(4), 489-510.

Ferrier, D. E., Bassett, H. H., & Denham, S. A. (2014). Relations between executive function and emotionality in preschoolers: Exploring a transitive cognition–emotion linkage. Frontiers in Psychology, 5.

Jahromi, L. B., & Stifter, C. A. (2008). Individual differences in preschoolers' self-regulation and theory of mind. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54(1), 125-150.

Raver, C. (2003). Young children’s emotional development and school readiness. Social Policy Report, 16(3), 3-19.

Willoughby, M. T., Piper, B., Oyanga, A. & Merseth, K. (2019). Measuring executive function skills in young children in Kenya: Associations with school readiness. Developmental Science. doi:10.1111/desc.12818

Perry. R. E., Braren, S. H., & Blair, C. (2018). Socioeconomic risk and school readiness: Longitudinal mediation through children's social competence and executive function. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01544

Beck, D. M., Schaefer, C., Pang, K., & Carlson, S. M. (2011). Executive function in preschool children: Test–retest reliability. Journal of Cognition and Development, 12(2), 169-193.

Blair, C., & Diamond, A. (2008). Biological processes in prevention and intervention: The promotion of self-regulation as a means of preventing school failure. Development and Psychopathology, 20(03), 899-911.

Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2015). School readiness and self-regulation: A developmental psychobiological approach. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 711-731.

Carlson, S. M., Zelazo, P. D., & Faja, S. (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Developmental Psychology, Vol. 1: Body and Mind.

Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2011). Building the Brain’s “Air Traffic Control” System: How Early Experiences Shape the Development of Executive Function: Working Paper No. 11. Retrieved from http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu.

Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 31.

Hughes, C. (2011). Changes and challenges in 20 years of research into the development of executive functions. Infant and Child Development, 20(3), 251-271.

Jacques, S., & Marcovitch, S. (2010). Development of executive function across the life span. The Handbook of Life-span Development.

Barkley, R. A. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulation: An evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 11(1), 1-29.

Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647-663.

Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2014). Closing the achievement gap through modification of neurocognitive and neuroendocrine function: Results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of an innovative approach to the education of children in kindergarten. PloS One, 9(11), e112393.

Ciairano, S., Visu-Petra, L., & Settanni, M. (2007). Executive inhibitory control and cooperative behavior during early school years: A follow-up study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(3), 335-345.

Cole, P. M., Usher, B. A., & Cargo, A. P. (1993). Cognitive risk and its association with risk for disruptive behavior disorder in preschoolers. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22(2), 154-164.

Coolidge, F. L., DenBoer, J. W., & Segal, D. L. (2004). Personality and neuropsychological correlates of bullying behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(7), 1559-1569.

Espy, K. A., McDiarmid, M. M., Cwik, M. F., Stalets, M. M., Hamby, A., & Senn, T. E. (2004). The contribution of executive functions to emergent mathematic skills in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26(1), 465-486.

Hughes, C. (2002). Executive functions and development: Emerging themes. Infant and Child Development, 11(2), 201-209.

Jahromi, L. B., & Stifter, C. A. (2008). Individual differences in preschoolers' self-regulation and theory of mind. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54(1), 125-150.

Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. xi, 244(4907), 933.

Riggs, N. R., Blair, C. B., & Greenberg, M. T. (2004). Concurrent and 2-year longitudinal relations between executive function and the behavior of 1st and 2nd grade children. Child Neuropsychology, 9(4), 267-276.

Welsh, J. A., Nix, R. L., Blair, C., Bierman, K. L., & Nelson, K. E. (2010). The development of cognitive skills and gains in academic school readiness for children from low-income families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(1), 43.

Zelazo, P. D., & Cunningham, W. A. (2007). Executive function: Mechanisms underlying emotion regulation. In J. J. Gross, J. J. Gross (Eds.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 135-158). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.

Pellicano, E., Kenny, L., Brede, J. Klaric, E., Lichwa, H., & McMillin, R. (2017). Executive function predicts school readiness in austistic and typical preschool children. Cognitive Development, 43, 1-13.

Carlson, S. M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 595-616.

Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007). Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science (New York, NY), 318(5855), 1387.

Pianta, R. C., Whittaker, J. E., Vitiello, V., Ruzek, E., Ansari, A., Hofkens, T., & DeCoster, J. (2020). Children's school readiness skills across the pre-K year: Associations with teacher-student interactions, teacher practices, and exposure to academic content. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66.

Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2011). Building the Brain’s “Air Traffic Control” System: How Early Experiences Shape the Development of Executive Function: Working Paper No. 11. Retrieved from http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu.

Evans, G. W., & Wachs, T. D. (2010). Chaos and its influence on children’s development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Lengua, L. J., Honorado, E., & Bush, N. R. (2007). Contextual risk and parenting as predictors of effortful control and social competence in preschool children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 40-55.

Sanchez, M. M., & Pollak, S. D. (2009). Socio-emotional development following early abuse and neglect: Challenges and insights from translational research. Handbook of Developmental Social Neuroscience, 497-520.

Filene, J. H., Kaminski, J. W., Valle, L. A., & Cachat, P. (2013). Components associated with home visiting program outcomes: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 132(Supplement 2), S100-S109.

Nievar, M. A., & Van Egeren, L. (2005). More Is Better: A Meta-Analysis of Home Visiting Programs for At-Risk Families. Online Submission, SRCD, April 8, 2005

Caldera, D., Burrell, L., Rodriguez, K., Crowne, S. S., Rohde, C., & Duggan, A. (2007). Impact of a statewide home visiting program on parenting and on child health and development. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(8), 829-852.

Kitzman, H. J., Olds, D. L., Cole, R. E., Hanks, C. A., Anson, E. A., Arcoleo, K. J., ... & Holmberg, J. R. (2010). Enduring effects of prenatal and infancy home visiting by nurses on children: follow-up of a randomized trial among children at age 12 years. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164(5), 412-418.

Olds, D. L., Henderson, C. R., Chamberlin, R., & Tatelbaum, R. (1986). Preventing child abuse and neglect: a randomized trial of nurse home visitation. Pediatrics, 78(1), 65-78.

Olds, D. L., Kitzman, H., Cole, R., Robinson, J., Sidora, K., Luckey, D. W., ... & Holmberg, J. (2004). Effects of nurse home-visiting on maternal life course and child development: Age 6 follow-up results of a randomized trial. Pediatrics, 114(6), 1550-1559.

Olds, D. L., Kitzman, H., Hanks, C., Cole, R., Anson, E., Sidora-Arcoleo, K., ... & Stevenson, A. J. (2007). Effects of nurse home visiting on maternal and child functioning: age-9 follow-up of a randomized trial. Pediatrics, 120(4), e832-e845.

Heckman, J. J., Holland, M. L., Makino, K. K., Pinto, R., & Rosales-Rueda, M. (2017). An analysis of the Memphis nurse-family partnership program (No. w23610). National Bureau of Economic Research.

Sandstrom, H. (2019). Early childhood home visiting programs and health. Health Affairs Health Policy Brief.

Michalopoulos, C., Faucetta, K., Warren, A., & Mitchell, R. (2017). Evidence on the Long-Term Effects of Home Visiting Programs: Laying the Groundwork for Long-Term Follow-Up in the Mother and Infant Home Visiting Program Evaluation (MIHOPE). OPRE Report 2017-73. US Department of Health and Human Services.

Heckman’s Birth-to-Three Advocates Presentation: https://heckmanequation.org/www/assets/2018/09/F_ROI-Webinar-Deck_birth-to-three_091818.pdf

Duffee, J. H., Mendelsohn, A. L., Kuo, A. A., Legano, L. A., Earls, M. F., & Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. (2017). Early childhood home visiting. Pediatrics, 140(3).

Osborne, C. (2016). Home visiting programs: Four evidence-based lessons for policymakers. Behavioral Science & Policy, 2(1), 29-36.

Valcan, D. S., Davis, H., & Pino-Pasternak, D. (2018). Parental behaviours predicting early childhood executive functions: A meta-analysis.

Dotterer, A. M., Iruka, I. U., & Pungello, E. (2012). Parenting, race, and socioeconomic status: Links to school readiness. Family Relations, 61(4), 657-670.

McWayne, C. M., Hahs-Vaughn, D. L., Cheung, K., & Wright, L. E. G. (2012). National profiles of school readiness skills for Head Start children: An investigation of stability and change. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(4), 668-683.

Morris, A. S., Robinson, L. R., Hays‐Grudo, J., Claussen, A. H., Hartwig, S. A., & Treat, A. E. (2017). Targeting parenting in early childhood: A public health approach to improve outcomes for children living in poverty. Child Development, 88(2), 388-397.

Doctoroff, G. L., & Arnold, D. H. (2017). Doing homework together: The relation between parenting strategies, child engagement, and achievement. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 48, 103-113.

Brophy-Herb, H. E., Zajicek-Farber, M. L., Bocknek, E. L., McKelvey, L. M., & Stansbury, K. (2013). Longitudinal connections of maternal supportiveness and early emotion regulation to children's school readiness in low-income families. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 4(1), 2-19.

Prendergast, S., & MacPhee, D. (2018). Parental contributors to children’s persistence and school readiness. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 45, 31-44.

Gedal Douglass, A., Roche, K. M., Lavin, K., Ghazarian, S. R., & Perry, D. F. (2020). Longitudinal parenting pathways linking Early Head Start and kindergarten readiness. Early Child Development and Care, 1-20.

Webster-Stratton, C. H., Reid, M. J. & Beauchaine, T. (2011). Combining parent and child training for young children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 40(2), 191-203.

Turner, K. M. T., & Sanders, M. R. (2006). Help when it’s needed first: A controlled evaluation of brief, preventive behavioral family intervention in a primary care setting. Behavior Therapy, 37(2), 131-142.

Zubrick, S. R., et al. (2005). Prevention of child behavior problems through universal implementation of a group behavioral family intervention. Prevention Science 6(4), 287-304.

Joo, Y. S., Magnuson, K., Duncan, G. J., Schindler, H. S., Yoshikawa, H., & Ziol-Guest, K. M. (2020). What works in early childhood education programs?: A meta–analysis of preschool enhancement programs. Early Education and Development, 31(1), 1-26.

Van Mourik, K., Crone, M. R., De Wolff, M. S., & Reis, R. (2017). Parent training programs for ethnic minorities: A meta-analysis of adaptations and effect. Prevention Science, 18(1), 95-105.

Spencer, C. M., Topham, G. L., & King, E. L. (2020). Do online parenting programs create change?: A meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(3), 364.

Tanya Tavassolie, Claudia López, Jessica De Feyter, Suzanne C. Hartman & Adam Winsler (2018) Migrant preschool children's school readiness and early elementary school performance, The Journal of Educational Research, 111(3), 331-344.

Lee, R., Han, W.-J., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2018). Preschool attendance and school readiness for children of immigrant mothers in the United States. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 16(2), 190–209.

Adair, J. K., Colegrove, K. S., & McManus, M. E. (2017). How the word gap argument negatively impacts young children of latinx immigrants' conceptualizations of learning. Harvard Educational Review, 87(3), 309-334, 452-453.

Sullivan, A. L., Houri, A., & Sadeh, S. (2016). Demography and early academic skills of students from immigrant families: The kindergarten class of 2011. School Psychology Quarterly, 31(2), 149-162.

Children in Immigrant Families. (2019). Kids Count. Retrieved from https://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/115-children-in-immigrant-families#detailed/1/any/false/1729,37,871,870,573,869,36,868,867,133/any/445,446

Manfra, L. (2019). Impact of homelessness on school readiness skills and early academic achievement: A systematic review of the literature. Early Childhood Education Journal, 47(2), 239-249.

Sparks, S. D. (2017, April 5). Homeless Students; "Well-Being of Young Children After Experiencing Homelessness". Education Week, 36(27), 5.

Brown, S. R., Shinn, M., & Khadduri, J. Well-being of young children after experiencing homelessness. (2017). OPRE Report No. 2017-06. Homeless Families Research Brief. Retrieved from https://www.eccbouldercounty.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Well-being-of-Young-Children-after-Experiencing-Homelessness.pdf

Myrtil, M. J., Justice, L. M., & Jiang, H. (2019). Home-literacy environment of low-income rural families: Association with child-and caregiver-level characteristics. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 60, 1-10.

Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., Pagani, L.S., Feinstein, L., Engel, M., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Sexton, H. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428.

Hoff, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influences: Socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development, 74, 1368–1378.

Forget-Dobois, N., Lemelin, J. P., Pérusse, D., Tremblay, & R. E., Boivin, M. (2009). Early childhood language mediates the relation between home environment and school readiness. Child Development, 80(3), 736-749.

Hirsch-Pasek, K., Adamson, L., Bakeman, R, Tresch Owen, M., Michnick Golinkoff, R. Pace, A., Yust, P., & Suma, K. (2015). The contribution of early communication quality to low-income children's language success.

Hoff,E., Burridge, A., Ribot, K., & Giguere, D. (2018). Language specificity in relation to maternal education to bilingual children's vocabulary growth. Developmental Psychology, 54(6), 1011-1019.

Weisleder, A., & Fernald, A. (2013). Talking to children matters: Early language experience strengthens processing and builds vocabulary. Psychological Science, 24(11), 2143-2152.

Luo, R., Pace, A., Levine, D., Iglesias, A., de Villiers, J., Michnick Golinkoff, R., Sweig Wilson, M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2021). Home literacy environment and existing knowledge mediate the link between socioeconomic status and language learning skills in dual language learners. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 55, 1-14.

Buysse, V., Peisner-Feinberg, E., Páez, M., Hammer, C. S., & Knowles, M. (2014). Effects of early education programs and practices on the development and learning of dual language learners: A review of the literature. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 765-785.

Hoff, E., Core, C., & Shanks, K. (2020). The quality of child-directed speech depends on the speaker's language proficiency.

Brito, N.H. (2017). Influence of home linguistic environment on early language development. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4(2):155-162.

Hoff, E. (2013). Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low-SES and language minority homes: implications for closing achievement gaps. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 4.

Gottfried, M. A. (2017). ELL school readiness and pre-kindergarten care. Educational Policy (Los Altos, Calif.), 31(1), 39-72.

Dussling, T. M. (2020). The impact of an early reading intervention with English language learners and native-English-speaking children. Reading Psychology, 41(4), 241-263.

Limlingan, M. C., McWayne, C. M., Sanders, E. A., & López, M. L. (2020). Classroom language contexts as predictors of Latinx preschool dual language learners’ school readiness. American Educational Research Journal, 57(1), 339-370. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219855694.

Linver, M. R., Brookes-Gunn, J., & Kohen, D. E. (2002). Family processes as pathways from income to young children’s development. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), 719-734.

Lawson, G. M., & Farah, M. J. (2017). Executive function as a mediator between SES and academic achievement throughout childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 41(1), 94-104.

Justice, L. M., Jiang, H., Purtell, K. M., Schmeer, K., Boone, K., Bates, R., & Salsberry, P. J. (2019). Conditions of poverty, parent–child interactions, and toddlers’ early language skills in low-income families. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 23(7), 971-978.

Wei, W.S., McCoy, D.C., Busby, A.K., Hanno, E.C. and Sabol, T.J. (2021), Beyond Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status: Exploring the Role of Neighborhood Resources for Preschool Classroom Quality and Early Childhood Development. American Journal of Community Psychology.

Hamad, R. & Rehkopf, D. H. (2016). Poverty and child development: A longitudinal study of the impact of the earned income tax credit. American Journal of Epidemiology, 183(9), 775-784.

Smith-Adcock, S., Leite, W., Kaya, Y., & Amatea, E. (2019). A model of parenting risk and resilience, social-emotional readiness, and reading achievement in kindergarten children from low-income families model. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28.

Heberle, A. E. & Carter, A. S. (2020). Is poverty on young minds? Stereotype endorsement, disadvantage awareness, and social-emotional challenges in socioeconomically disadvantaged children. Developmental Psychology, 56(2), 336-349.

National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2012). The Science of Neglect: The Persistent Absence of Responsive Care Disrupts the Developing Brain: Working Paper 12. http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu

Donoghue, E. A. (2017). Quality early education and child care from birth to kindergarten. Pediatrics, 140(2).

Li, W., Farkas, G., Duncan, G. J., Burchinal, M. R., & Vandell, D. L. (2013). Timing of high-quality child care and cognitive, language, and preacademic development. Developmental Psychology, 49(8), 1440.

Choi, J. Y., Horm, D., Jeon, S., & Ryu, D. (2019). Do stability of care and teacher–child interaction quality predict child outcomes in early head start?. Early Education and Development, 30(3), 337-356.

Ruprecht, K., Elicker, J., & Choi, J. Y. (2016). Continuity of care, caregiver–child interactions, and toddler social competence and problem behaviors. Early Education and Development, 27(2), 221-239.

Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, DHHS. (2006). The NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD): Findings for 155. Children up to Age 4 1/2 Years (05-4318). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Shonkoff, J. P., and D. A. Phillips. (2000) From Neurons to Neighborhoods. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Burchinal, M., Vandergrift, N., Pianta, R., & Mashburn, A. (2010). Threshold analysis of association between child care quality and child outcomes for low-income children in pre-kindergarten programs. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(2), 166-176.

Goble, P., Sandilos, L. E., & Pianta, R. C. (2019). Gains in teacher-child interaction quality and children's school readiness skills: Does it matter where teachers start?. Journal of School Psychology, 73, 101-113.

Farran, D. C., Meador, D., Christopher, C., Nesbitt, K. T., & Bilbrey, L. E. (2017). Data‐driven improvement in prekindergarten classrooms: Report from a partnership in an urban district. Child Development, 88(5), 1466-1479.

Ansari, A., Pianta, R. C., Whittaker, J. E., Vitiello, V., & Ruzek, E. (2020). Enrollment in public-prekindergarten and school readiness skills at kindergarten entry: Differential associations by home language, income, and program characteristics. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 54, 60-71.

Miller, E. B., Farkas, G., & Duncan, G. J. (2016). Does Head Start differentially benefit children with risks targeted by the program's service model? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 34, 1-12.

Barnett, W. S., Jung, K., Youn, M. J., & Frede, E. C. (2013). Abbott preschool program longitudinal effects study: Fifth grade follow-up. National Institute for Early Education Research, 10, 2001-2004.

Esmaeeli, Z., Kyle, F. E., & Lundetræ, K. (2019). Contribution of family risk, emergent literacy and environmental protective factors in children’s reading difficulties at the end of second-grade. Reading and Writing, 32(9), 2375-2399.

Ansari, A., Lόpez, M., Manfra, L., Bleiker, C., Dinehart, L. H. B., Hartman, S. C., & Winsler, A. (2017). Differential Third‐Grade outcomes associated with attending publicly funded preschool programs for Low‐Income latino children. Child Development, 88(5), 1743-1756.

Bartik, Timothy J., and Brad Hershbein. (2018). Degrees of Poverty: The Relationship between Family Income Background and the Returns to Education. Upjohn Institute Working Paper 18-284. Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. https://doi.org/10.17848/wp18-284

Vernon-Feagans, L., Mokrova, I. L., Carr, R. C., Garrett-Peters, P. T., Burchinal, M. R., & Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2019). Cumulative years of classroom quality from kindergarten to third grade: Prediction to children’s third grade literacy skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47, 531-540.

Carr, R. C., Mokrova, I. L., Vernon-Feagans, L., & Burchinal, M. R. (2019). Cumulative classroom quality during pre-kindergarten and kindergarten and children’s language, literacy, and mathematics skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47, 218-228.

Vernon-Feagans, L., Mokrova, I. L., Carr, R. C., Garrett-Peters, P. T., Burchinal, M. R., & Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2019). Cumulative years of classroom quality from kindergarten to third grade: Prediction to children’s third grade literacy skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47, 531-540.

Sabol, T. J., Bohlmann, N. L., & Downer, J. T. (2018). Low‐income ethnically diverse children's engagement as a predictor of school readiness above preschool classroom quality. Child Development, 89(2), 556-576.

Vandenbroucke, L., Spilt, J., Verschueren, K., Piccinin, C., & Baeyens, D. (2018). The classroom as a developmental context for cognitive development: A meta-analysis on the importance of teacher–student interactions for children’s executive functions. Review of Educational Research, 88(1), 125-164.

Cash, A. H., Ansari, A., Grimm, K. J., & Pianta, R. C. (2019). Power of Two: The Impact of 2 Years of High-Quality Teacher Child Interactions. Early Education and Development, 30(1), 60-81.

Goble, P., & Pianta, R. C. (2017). Teacher–child interactions in free choice and teacher-directed activity settings: Prediction to school readiness. Early Education and Development, 28(8), 1035-1051.

Sabol, T. J., Ross, E. C., & Frost, A. (2020). Are all Head Start classrooms created equal? Variation in classroom quality within Head Start centers and implications for accountability systems. American Educational Research Journal, 57(2), 504-534.

Burchinal, M., Garber, K., Foster, T., Bratsch-Hines, M., Franco, X., & Peisner-Feinberg, E. (2021). Relating early care and education quality to preschool outcomes: The same or different models for different outcomes?. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 55, 35-51.

Sabol, T. J., Hong, S. S., Pianta, R. C., & Burchinal, M. R. (2013). Can rating pre-K programs predict children's learning? Science, 341(6148), 845-846.

Hong, S. L. S., Sabol, T. J., Burchinal, M. R., Tarullo, L., Zaslow, M., & Peisner-Feinberg, E. S. (2019). ECE quality indicators and child outcomes: Analyses of six large child care studies. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 49, 202-217.

Schmitt, S. A., Pratt, M. E., Korucu, I., Napoli, A. R., & Schmerold, K. L. (2018). Preschool classroom quality and social-emotional functioning: Findings across geographic regions. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 43, 11-22.

Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M. J., & Stevenson, J. (2004). Phonemes, rimes, vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development: evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 665.

Double, K., McGrane, J., Stiff, J., & Hopfenbeck, T. (2019). The importance of early phonics improvements for predicting later reading comprehension. British Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 1220-1234.

Ball, E. W., & Blachman, B. A. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling? Reading Research Quarterly, 49-66.

Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5-51.

Lundberg, I., Frost, J., Peterson, O. (1988). Effects of an extensive program for stimulating phonological awareness in preschool children. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 263–284.

Chambers, B., Cheung, A. C., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). Literacy and language outcomes of comprehensive and developmental-constructivist approaches to early childhood education: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 18, 88-111.

Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub‐Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta‐analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250-287.

U.K. Department for Education. (2017). Statistics on national curriculum assessments at key stage 1 and phonics screening check results.

Machin, S. J., McNally, S., & Viarengo, M. (2016). 'Teaching to Teach' Literacy.

Suggate, S.P. (2016). A meta-analysis of the long-term effects of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and reading comprehension interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49(1), 77-96.

Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Song, L., Luo, R., Kuchirko, Y., Kahana-Kalman, R., Yoshikawa, H., & Raufman, J. (2014). Children's vocabulary growth in English and Spanish across early development and associations with school readiness skills. Developmental Neuropsychology, 39(2), 69-87.

Kenner, B, Terry, N., Friehling, A., & Namy, L. (2017). Phonemic awareness development in 2.5- and 3.5-year-old children: an examination of emergent, receptive, knowledge and skills. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 30(7), 1575-1594

Mol, S. E., Bus, A. G., de Jong, M. T., & Smeets, D. J. H. (2008). Added value of dialogic parent-child book readings: A meta-analysis. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 7-26.

Simsek, Z. C. & Erdogan, N. I. (2015) Effects of the dialogic and traditional reading techniques on children's language development. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 197, 754-758.

Doyle, B. G. & Bramwell, W. (2006). Promoting emergent literacy and social–emotional learning through dialogic reading. The Reading Teacher, 59(6), 554-564.

Heckman, J. J., Garcia, J. L., Leaf, D. E., and Prados, M. J. (2016). The Life-cycle Benefits of an Influential Early Childhood Program. The Heckman Equation. Retrieved from https://heckmanequation.org/resource/13-roi-toolbox/

Heckman, J. J., Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Savelyev, P. A., & Yavitz, A. (2009). The rate of return to the HighScope Perry Preschool Program. Journal of Public Economics, 94(1), 114-128.

Harvard University. (2020, August 17). Guide to Toxic Stress. Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. Retrieved from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/toxic-stress/.

Lynch, F. L., Dickerson, J. F., Pears, K. C., & Fisher, P. A. (2017). Cost effectiveness of a school readiness intervention for foster children. Children and Youth Services Review, 81, 63-71.

Wall-Wieler, E., Roos, L. L., Lee, J. B., Urquia, M. L., Roos, N. P., Bruce, S., & Brownell, M. (2019). Placement in care in early childhood and school readiness: a retrospective cohort study. Child Maltreatment, 24(1), 66-75.

Toledo, C. C., Paiva, A. P. G., Camilo, G. B., & Maior, M. R. S. (2010). Early detection of visual impairment and its relation to academic performance. Research Gate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46221147_Early_detection_of_visual_impairment_and_its_relation_to_academic_performance

Gould, M. C. & Gould, H. (2003). A clear vision for equity and opportunity. Sage Journals.

Wherry, L. R., Miller, S., Kaestner, R. & Meyer, B. D. (2015) Childhood Medicaid coverage and later life health care utilization. National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from https://www.nber.org/papers/w20929

Shaywitz, S.E. & Shaywitz, B.A. (2003). Dyslexia (specific reading disability). Pediatrics in Review, 24(5), 147-153.

186. Elbro, C., & Petersen, D. K. (2004). Long-term effects of phoneme awareness and letter name training. An intervention study with children at risk of dyslexia. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(4), 660-67.

Son, S. C., & Peterson, M. F. (2017). Marital status, home environments, and family strain: Complex effects on preschool children's school readiness skills. Infant and Child Development, 26(2), e1967.

Nieuwenhuis, R. & Maldonado, L. C. (2018). The triple bind of single-parent families: Resources, employment and policies to improve well-being. Policy Press.

National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2005/2014). Excessive Stress Disrupts the Architecture of the Developing Brain: Working Paper No. 3. Updated Edition. Retrieved from www.developingchild.harvard.edu.

Center on the Developing Child (2015). The Science of Resilience (InBrief). Retrieved from www.developingchild.harvard.edu.

Fortin, P., Godbout, L., & St-Cerny, S. (2012). Impact of Quebec’s Universal Low Fee Childcare Program on Female Labour Force Participation, Domestic Income and Government Budgets’, Université de Sherbrooke.

Lefebvre, P., Merrigan, P., & Roy-Desrosiers, F. (2012). Quebec's childcare universal low fees policy 10 years after: Effects, costs and benefits. Centre interuniversitaire sur le risque, les politiques économiques et l'emploi.

Fortin, P. (2018). Québec’s childcare program at 20. Inroads: The Canadian Journal of Opinion, 42, 52-64.

Gray-Lobe, G., Pathak, P. A., & Walters, C. R. (2021). The Long-Term Effects of Universal Preschool in Boston (No. w28756). National Bureau of Economic Research.

Herbst, C. M., & Tekin, E. (2016). The impact of child‐care subsidies on child development: Evidence from geographic variation in the distance to social service agencies. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 35(1), 94-116.

Schochet, O. N., & Johnson, A. D. (2019). The impact of child care subsidies on mothers’ education outcomes. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 40(3), 367-389.

García, J. L., Heckman, J. J., Leaf, D. E., & Prados, M. J. (2020). Quantifying the life-cycle benefits of an influential early-childhood program. Journal of Political Economy, 128(7), 2502-2541.

Elango, S., García, J. L., Heckman, J. J., & Hojman, A. (2015). Early childhood education. In Economics of Means-Tested Transfer Programs in the United States, Volume 2 (pp. 235-297). University of Chicago Press.

Gomez, R. E. (2016). Sustaining the benefits of early childhood education experiences: A research overview. Voices in Urban Education, 43, 5-14.

Gorey, K. M. (2001). Early childhood education: A meta-analytic affirmation of the short-and long-term benefits of educational opportunity. School psychology quarterly, 16(1), 9.

Reynolds, A. J., Temple, J. A., Robertson, D. L., & Mann, E. A. (2001). Long-term effects of an early childhood intervention on educational achievement and juvenile arrest: A 15-year follow-up of low-income children in public schools. Jama, 285(18), 2339-2346.